 |
 |
|
|
| Compiled By GayToday
The world's cities take up just 2 percent of the Earth's surface, yet account for roughly 78 percent of the carbon emissions from human activities, 76 percent of industrial wood use, and 60 percent of the water tapped for use by people, reports a new analysis of the global environmental impact of cities from the Worldwatch Institute, a Washington, DC - based research institute.
"These figures suggest that the struggle to achieve an environmentally sustainable economy will be won or lost in the world's urban areas," said Molly O'Meara, author of Reinventing Cities for People and the Planet. "Urban systems are undermining the planet's health and failing to provide decent living conditions for millions of people." London, for example, now requires roughly 58 times its land area just to supply its residents with food and timber. Meeting the needs of everyone in the world in the same way that the needs of Londoners are met would require at least three more Earths. Today, at least 600 million city dwellers in the developing world do not have adequate shelter and 1.1 billion choke on unhealthy air. Polluted air in 36 Indian cities killed some 52,000 people in 1995, a 28 percent increase from the early 1990s. China reported at least 3 million deaths from toxic urban air between 1994 and 1996.
One of the guiding principles will be to reform urban systems so that they mimic the metabolism of nature. "Rather than devouring water, food, energy, and processed goods, and then belching out the remains as pollutants, the city could align its consumption with realistic needs, produce more of its own food and energy, and put much more of its waste to use," said O'Meara. The study cites examples where cities are proving to be more nimble than nations at using planning and fiscal reform to put these ideas into action: Curitiba, Brazil has coordinated transportation and land use to support efficient public buses. Although the city has one car for every three people, two thirds of all trips in the city are made by bus. Curitiba also has devised a unique way to promote sanitation while boosting nutrition. Since 1991, the city has taken the money it would otherwise pay waste collectors to fetch garbage from slums, and has spent it on food from local farms. For every bag of waste brought to a waste collection site, a low-income family gets a bag of locally grown vegetables and fruits. Copenhagen, Denmark has taken a lead in turning waste into resource. "Gray water" from kitchens and compost from household waste nourish food-producing gardens, while hot water left over from power generation heats nearly 70 percent of the city's buildings. Also a leader in low-energy transport, Copenhagen maintains a fleet of bikes for public use that is financed through advertising on the wheel surfaces and bicycle frames. Chattanooga, Tennessee, a leader in recycling and electric buses, has transformed itself from the most polluted city in the United States to one of the most livable in less than three decades. A proposed zero-waste park, which would include factories, retail stores, and residences, would expand the city's metamorphosis. Underground tunnels would link some 30 buildings, 10 of which exist already, to share heating, cooling, wastes, and industrial water supplies. Powerful economic and political forces prevent such urban innovations from spreading around the world more quickly. A key problem, argues O'Meara, is that national governments curtail the fiscal autonomy of cities. With greater control over their own revenue sources, cities could place higher fees on water, trash collection, and road use; and levy taxes on fossil fuels in order to bring needed funds to city bank accounts and provide incentives for green technologies and jobs. In the case of water, authorities in Boston, Massachusetts have reduced total water demand by 24 percent since 1987 through a conservation strategy that has included higher prices. Today, the city has the water it needs for a third to half the cost of diverting two large rivers. Similarly, when Bogor, Indonesia installed water meters and raised fees in 1988, households began to conserve, allowing the utility to connect more families to the system without increasing the amount of water used. Financial levers can also tame automobile traffic, which kills some 885,000 people each year-equivalent to 10 fatal jumbo jet crashes per day-and injures many times this number. For more than 20 years, downtown-bound drivers in Singapore have paid a fee that rises during rush hour; since 1998, the fee has been automatically deducted from an electronic card. And in the United States, government policies are just beginning to target parking subsidies, worth $31.5 billion a year. Some local governments are removing subsidies for extension of sewer and roads - or charging fees to install them - to stem the runaway development that paves over more than 1 million hectares of farmland each year in the United States. This disincentive is the cornerstone of the state of Maryland's "Smart Growth" initiative to reduce sprawl.
The misdirection of money is not the only obstacle in the way of building better cities. "The people and businesses committed to current wasteful patterns of development constitute a potent political constituency," says O'Meara. "With better information, citizens can form a counterweight to powerful interest groups."
New information technologies hold promise for political change. Geographic information systems (GIS) can be used to create maps that highlight urban problems. In Maryland, a recent study used a GIS to produce a video that showed Baltimore and Washington merging into one massive agglomeration. Maryland's governor credited the video with helping him win legislative approval for his anti-sprawl initiatives. Also, various networks are speeding cooperation between officials in different urban settings. City-to-city exchanges are not as politically charged as negotiations among nations, so local authorities are often able to move faster than their national governments can to combat global environmental problems. In the 1980s, cities in the United States and Canada passed ordinances banning ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), well before the 1996 deadline for eliminating CFCs set by an international treaty. Some of the same municipalities have seized the lead in tackling climate change in the 1990s. Organized by the Toronto-based International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives, more than 300 cities have pledged to lower their greenhouse gas emissions to 20 percent below a baseline target by 2005-2010 - a goal that far exceeds the 5 percent cut by industrial nations agreed to in Kyoto, Japan in 1997. |
© 1997-99 BEI